Media Censorship in Australia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Media Censorship in Australia - Essay Example According to Internet World Statistics (2007), the Internet is today found to be used widely in Asia by 460 million users, in Europe by 338 million users and in North America by 235 million users. About 90% of Internet users are young people in many nations, including Asia, North America, Europe and Australia and New Zealand. Today, school kids around the world are the busiest users of the Internet. (Anheier 2008:633). is now widely used by the government and business for their Internet on-line e-commerce and e-government transactions , there has been significant developments in Internet law-making and policy , there has been basic transformations to Internet governance , the consolidation of the internet for the popular culture and entertainment , the embedding of Internet with the contemporary identity , the changes in the media like on-line news , Internet’s impact in relationships , love , communication and desire. (Goggin 2002: 2). The 15th century media was the printing press, the 19th century had brought broadsheets, and 20th century brought radio, TV and the Internet. A new media may come into existence in the 21st century with all its permutations and parameters. Today, from neighbourhood to large companies are enjoying the ease and the speed of the Internet to create support for their objectives. Due to the Internet age, now companies are able to evaluate their public relations strategies in real dollar terms like revenue and sales. Today’s media is comprised of lap tops. ... siness for their Internet on-line e-commerce and e-government transactions , there has been significant developments in Internet law-making and policy , there has been basic transformations to Internet governance , the consolidation of the internet for the popular culture and entertainment , the embedding of Internet with the contemporary identity , the changes in the media like on-line news , Internet’s impact in relationships , love , communication and desire. (Goggin 2002: 2). Why Internet is a new media environment? The 15th century media was the printing press, the 19th century had brought broadsheets, and 20th century brought radio, TV and the Internet. A new media may come into existence in the 21st century with all its permutations and parameters. Today, from neighbourhood to large companies are enjoying the ease and the speed of the Internet to create support for their objectives. Due to the Internet age, now companies are able to evaluate their public relations strat egies in real dollar terms like revenue and sales. Today’s media is comprised of lap tops, cell phones with Internet accessing facilities, televisions, and digital camera. (Duhe 2007:2). The notion of mediated communication evaluates the public relation demeanours that happen through some varieties of mass media technologies like the Internet or televisions. J.E Grunig (2001) placed interpersonal and mediated communications are the two ends of the analogues’ aspect. Sha (1996) was of the view that dividing the mediated with that of interpersonal dimension was more proper. (Duhe 2007:9). Internet is regarded in the creation of contemporary Australian identities, and the dawning acknowledgement that Australia is one of the many nation benefited from the Internet as what Marcia Langton is of

Private Equity Deals Essay Example for Free

Private Equity Deals Essay Private equity can be described as investing in a company through a negotiated process. Investment entails transformational, value-added and active management strategy. Private Equity investments can be undertaken following three categories. These are venture capital, Buy-out and special situation investment. Venture capital can be described as an investment to create a new company or expand a smaller company that is presently undeveloped. Buy-out investment involves acquisition of a significant portion of investment in a mature company so as to gain control or ownership of the company. Special situation investment involves changing government regulations or industry trends on investment due to availability of opportunity (Robinson and Cottrell, 2007). This paper will broadly analyze buy out investment in detail, discussing its history, growth, merits and failures.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Private equity firms accrue interest on investment through any of the three ways. These include an IPO, sale or merger and recapitalisation. Private equity firms sell unlisted securities directly to investors through private offering or private equity fund which attracts different sources of contributions from small investors who prefer to invest directly to investors due to the risks associated with private equity funds. Private equity fund require a large amount of money to allow entry which cannot be afforded by most private equity firms. Moreover Private equity firms prefer to invest in firms or investors where the firm can accrue returns after a short duration unlike private equity funds which can take up to twelve years to accrue interests. Private equity firms evaluate availability of opportunity to avoid investing in a failing company which, led to heavy capital losses by the firm. The risk has been noted to be higher in venture capital funds (Lasen, 2006).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Private equity industry was begun in 1946 by the American Research and Development Corporation (ARD) to encourage private institutions provides funding to soldiers who returned from World War II. ARD aimed to provide skills and funding to the management and this would stimulate success of the companies accrue profits. The success of the industry led to permeation of few wealthy families into the industry in 1970s. The industry focussed more on debt financed leveraged buy-outs (LBOs)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A Leveraged buy-out (LBO) occurs when a financial sponsor gains control of a majority of a target company’s stock ownership through the use of borrowed money or debt (Lasen, 2006). A Leveraged buy-out is a widely used strategy where a company acquires another company through significant amount of borrowed money. In most cases, the assets of the acquiring company and the company being acquired are used as security for the loans. Leveraged buyouts allow companies to make acquisitions without committing a lot of capital. In an LBO 70% debt to 30% equity ration is allowed though the debt can amount 90% top 95% of target Company total capitalisation. Private equity firm prefer to sue leveraged buyouts for two reasons. Use of debt that is widely used in US increased financial return to the private equity sponsor. Debts are exempted from taxation and hence the returns from debt are greater that from cash (Lasen, 2006; Robinson and Cottrell, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Many countries for example Germany have introduced new tax laws with an aim of discouraging leveraged buyouts through reduction of tax shield effectiveness. The performance of private equity firms that used LBO as their main source of financing went into bankruptcy in 1980s and 1980s.   The insolvency was largely contributed by excessive debt financing amounting up to 97%. This led to higher interest payment that exceeded the company’s operating cash flow. Most companies were taken over by other companies and government.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the recent past private equity industry has experienced a boom as noted in Great Britain as well as USA. Most pension scheme companies have invested in private equity firms and in particular LBOs. The size of private equity pool increased by 37% in 1994 in Great Britain. There is great disparity between foreign private equity pool and United States which present possibility of future growth. The rapid growth in the private equity industry has led to poor returns on capital invested. The returns from public equity deals are higher and this challenges the stability of private equity industry in using LBOs as way of financing (Clark and Whiteside, 2003).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   PED projects were initially known to have positive impact in paediatrics industry. The PED projects however are on the decline. This can be attributed to poor management and appointment of nationals who have worked in public service to oversee them yet they have little experience or knowledge that is needed. The PED has encountered pressure from fear of disappointing former and future employees and this has in most cases resulted in failure or problem in implementation of the projects (Saylor, Swenson, Reynolds and Taylor, 1999). References Clark, G. L., Whiteside, N. (2003) Pension Security in the 21st Century: Redrawing the Public-Private Debate. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Robinson, M. J., Cottrell, T. J â€Å"Investment Patterns of Informal Investors in the Alberta Private Equity Market† Journal of Small Business Management, 45, (2007):11-89. Larsen, D. L. â€Å"Challenges to the Private Equity Industry† Journal of Accountancy, 202, (2006):112-156. Saylor, C. F., Swenson, C., Reynolds, S., and Taylor, M â€Å"The Paediatric Emotional Distress Scale: a Brief Screening Measure for Young Children Exposed to Traumatic Events.† Journal of Clinical Child Psychology. 28.1. (1999): 34-70.

Henry Hyde: Which Henry Hyde Will Show Up Today? :: EssayPapers

Henry Hyde: Which Henry Hyde Will Show Up Today? Henry Hyde has served on numerous committees and has participated in many of our nation’s most controversial issues over the past few decades. In this way, many have felt Hyde’s influence. In 1987, Hyde was a member of the Joint House-Senate Committee that investigated the Iran-Contra matter. In 1996, Hyde was the Chairman of the Republican Platform Committee at the National Convention, in San Diego. Most recently, Hyde served as the chief manager in the Impeachment of President Clinton during both the House and Senate proceedings. Henry Hyde is often heralded for the roles he has played in these events of national significance. From a political standpoint, Henry Hyde initially appears to be unflawed–what he says he seems to believe, and what he believes he appears to say. Although his views are often unpopular, he portrays a politician of set moral and ethical values, a set of values could have augmented his rise to his rise to power in the United States Governm ent. Unfortunately, this proves not to be the case. In fact, a comparison of the Henry Hyde in the Iran-Contra Affair to the Henry Hyde who levied an all out impeachment on William Jefferson Clinton illustrates many disturbing patterns. The Henry Hyde, whose political image is so aesthetically strong, represents anything but a pillar of political ideology or ethical value. Instead, Henry Hyde emerges as having no regard for political consistency and as a politician whose underlying political platforms are dictated by partisanship. In this way, Hyde has shown a willingness to extend his political platforms to opposite extremes, all in the name of doing Republican power. The hypocrisy that arises in Henry Hyde’s political discourse is unsurpassed. Due to his highly influential and esteemed role in our government I feel Henry Hyde’s behavior deserves to be criticized and the social implications should be understood. It is to this extent that I focus on the partisanship that dictates Henry Hyde’s every move and the hypocrisy that arises as a result. In 1986, Henry Hyde defended the Reagan Administration and Oliver North against Independent Council investigations by all means possible. Throughout the tumult Hyde stood by their side refusing to allow a fellow Republican lose power without a fight. Due to circumstances that surrounded the Iran-Contra Affair, the Reagan Administration and Oliver North were under intense scrutiny. The generalities of the case involved the illegal sales of weapons to the Nicaraguan Contra’s.

Life as a parole officer Essay

For my interview, I interviewed Tiffany Sanders, from the Johnston County Adult Probation Parole office located in Smithfield NC. Before my interview I came up with ten questions to ask Mrs. Sanders during our interview. After my interview with Mrs. Sanders, I have come to the conclusion that I would love to be a probation or parole officer. One question I asked Mrs. Sanders was â€Å"what are the job functions of a parole officer?† Based on Mrs. Sander’s comments, Parole officers are given a caseload of people on parole in which she is required to supervise and guide them through their period of release into the community. A parole officer is also responsible for investigating paroles that violate the rules and testify at court hearings when paroles violate their parole. Another question that I asked Mrs. Sanders was â€Å"what are the pros and cons to being a parole officer?† Mrs. Sanders replied to this question with, â€Å"I love my job as a parole officer. Every day I come into this officer with my own special goal to help someone get on the right track and turn their life around.† So to answer the questions, some pros to being a parole officer is that you get to enjoy helping others but that could also be your con to a parole officer job. If you enjoy helping others it may be hard for you to cope with failure when you have a parole that refuses to do better. Another con to being a parole officer is the fact that you get benefits and the job is always in high demand due to the number of offenders. As I left the office of Mrs. Sanders I could still hear her recommendations to me if I wanted to be a parole officer. Mrs. Sanders recommended that if I wanted to be a parole officer then to make sure that I was dedicated and committed to the job. She feels that being a parole officer can be quit discouraging when you see someone fail that you have tried so hard to rehabilitate. It is always best to not get emotionally involved with your job and to follow all guidelines and rules to keep from doing so. I really enjoyed this week’s assignment because I have always had an interest in being a probation or parole officer. After my interview with Mrs. Sanders I now know that this would be the perfect job for me because I love to help people and I feel that criminals can change their ways with support and the right guidance.

Problems Facing Human Services Clients Essay

Human service professionals have a very rewarding career. They are given the opportunity in more ways than one to provide help to those who are in need of it. While this profession can be rewarding, unfortunately, this area of expertise can be emotionally exhausting because of the many problems that the human service clients face and the lack of resources that are available to them. These problems include, but are not limited to, economic inequality, poverty, child welfare as well as social problems. While these problems are evident daily, human service professionals are trained to notice the oppression and social injustice and to develop solutions to the problems so they will not continue to persist in the future (France, 2005). For example, human service professionals are more aware of the common denominator or factor that is present among a family living in poverty, an incarcerated individual and a person living with a disability. The single factor that is common from this example would be a lack of resources due to their social identities. While it is the goal of human service professionals to promote social equality for all, unfortunately, living in today’s society, this is simply not the case. Many of the human service clients face many injustices because they fall into a certain category, and that category can be classified as the impoverished, which is an example of an economic equality (France, 2005). This is a major problem that human service clients face in the United States. They are often looked down upon by certain people because of a wealth disparity; however, many human service professionals know that not treating the clients with respect and judging them will only add to the problem and take away from the  solution. Poverty and child welfare are two problems that are in connection with one another. Many children who are in foster care come from low-income households, and because they are so young, unfortunately, they do not have a voice and depend on case managers or human service professionals to be their voice and stand up for fair treatment and equality for them (Woodside, 2011). It is imperative that human service professionals stand up for children of all ages because oftentimes they are overlooked. Poverty is another major factor that is a problem that many human service clients face. Not having the financial means to take care of necessities in the life is a crippling barrier. While money is not the answer to all problems in life, however, it is needed in order to live a comfortable lifestyle and to take care of daily needs (Woodside, 2011). Social problems are also yet another problem that has caused some human service clients to feel separated or stand out from society. Such social problems include drug and alcohol abuse, discrimination, teenage pregnancy and crime. Specific Helping Skills It is very important that human service providers utilize specific helping skills with their clients. By incorporating certain helping skills, the clients will be at ease thereby allowing the human service professionals to gain the client’s trust as well as their cooperation (Neukrug, 2001). Clients need to feel that the human service providers are genuinely concerned about their well-being and welfare. In order for the clients to be transparent to the human service providers, it is pertinent that each client is treated with respect and compassion is displayed at all times. The specific helping skills that should be used with the clients include good communication skills as well as interpersonal skills. Having great communication between the client and the human service manager is critical because it allows the human service specialist to be effective in providing help to the clients (Neukrug, 2001). Having effective communication skills also allows the case manager to reach out to the clients and, as a result, the case manager can get a clear understanding of the problem pertaining to the client and the proper solution. Interpersonal skills are also important when interacting with clients because it allows the human service professional to connect with the clients in a way that will allow the client to feel comfortable and willing to cooperate with the human service  professional. Solutions to the Problems Once the human service professional accesses the situation concerning the client and identify the problem or problems, then a solution can be created. Since each individual client is unique and different in certain ways, therefore, it can be determined that the solution will be different as well (Rotham, 1997). Depending on the individual person and the circumstance, the case manager will develop a solution that entails resources which will help that person in the best way possible. Each client and the circumstance is viewed on a case-by-case basis, meaning that each person is analyzed separately and depending on the client’s family and social history, as well as problems, will help the case manager to determine a solution that best meets that client’s needs. It can be determined that social problems will always be present and will not completely disappear. However, the goal of the human service providers is to help implement ways in which the problems will be reduced. Usually, this implementation will incorporate the government because of numerous programs which are funded by the government or the tax payer’s dollars. Such programs consist of the Fatherhood Program which assists noncustodial fathers with employment opportunities, WIC, also called the Women’s Infant Children program that gives low-income families access to healthy foods thus promoting healthy eating and lifestyles, and the Snap program, also called food stamps that enable low-income families to purchase groceries (Rotham, 1997). There are also other programs or organizations such as shelters or transitional homes in which the human service professional will connect people who are in need of these services. Human service professionals play a very important role in society because they help to bring about a positive change with the clients with whom they come in contact. Many people, before becoming clients, felt helpless and did not know who they can turn to because of the lack of trust. This is why it is crucial for human service professionals to display respect and courtesy at all times because it allows the case managers to gain the clients’ trust that is needed in order to really help them. In a sense, human service professionals are everyday heroes because they help to bring about a positive change one client at a  time. Sources France, Kenneth (2005). Helping Skills for Human Service Workers. New York, NY: Thomas Neukrug, Ed (2001). Skills and Techniques for Human Service Professionals. Retrieved from www.books.google.com Rotham, Jack (1997). Case Management. New York, NY: Pearson Woodside, Marianne. (2011). An Introduction to Human Services.Retreived from www.books.google.com

5 Compromise essays

The 3/5 Compromise essays The first real battle of the Civil War occurred before the American Revolution. This battle wasnt fought like most other battles; instead of generals trying to outdo the other with weapons, politicians tried to outdo the other with their words. The 3/5s Compromise is said to have started the North verses South conflict. The simple though complex question that was brought up was should slaves be counted in census to determine the number of congressional delegates a state was to receive? This divided the nation because the North had little slaves, but the South had more slaves than they did salve owners. The North didnt want slaves to be counted because counting slaves would give the South an unfair advantage. The South felt as though the North was trying to make the House of Representatives biased so that the South wouldnt get what they wanted. The 3/5s Compromise called for exactly 60% of the salves in a state to be counted when determining the number of congressional delegat es a state should receive. This perhaps left both sides hungry for more, which started the nation in the direction of a civil war. The after-effects of the 3/5s compromise also helped send the nation on a one-way road headed for one place...civil war. This road so to speak is that the South forced the government to revoke Congress right to regulate slave trade. The South wanted to be able to trade for slaves as much as possible because the more they trade the higher the population, the higher the population the more delegates a state would have in the House of Representatives. The North disagreed for the same reason the south agreed; they felt that Congress would give the South too much power. Eventually Congress ended up ruling that they couldnt regulate slave trade for another twenty years. This made the South more content but angered the North. Already one can see the emerging conflicts betwee...

The Basics of Magnetic Levitated Trains (Maglev)

The Basics of Magnetic Levitated Trains (Maglev) Magnetic levitation (maglev) is a relatively new transportation technology in which non-contacting vehicles travel safely at speeds of 250 to 300 miles-per-hour or higher while suspended, guided, and propelled above a guideway by magnetic fields. The guideway is the physical structure along which maglev vehicles are levitated. Various guideway configurations, e.g., T-shaped, U-shaped, Y-shaped, and box-beam, made of steel, concrete, or aluminum, have been proposed. There are three primary functions basic to maglev technology: (1) levitation or suspension; (2) propulsion; and (3) guidance. In most current designs, magnetic forces are used to perform all three functions, although a nonmagnetic source of propulsion could be used. No consensus exists on an optimum design to perform each of the primary functions. Suspension Systems Electromagnetic suspension (EMS) is an attractive force levitation system whereby electromagnets on the vehicle interact with and are attracted to ferromagnetic rails on the guideway. EMS was made practical by advances in electronic control systems that maintain the air gap between vehicle and guideway, thus preventing contact. Variations in payload weight, dynamic loads, and guideway irregularities are compensated for by changing the magnetic field in response to vehicle/guideway air gap measurements. Electrodynamic suspension (EDS) employs magnets on the moving vehicle to induce currents in the guideway. Resulting repulsive force produces inherently stable vehicle support and guidance because the magnetic repulsion increases as the vehicle/guideway gap decreases. However, the vehicle must be equipped with wheels or other forms of support for takeoff and landing because the EDS will not levitate at speeds below approximately 25 mph. EDS has progressed with advances in cryogenics and superconducting magnet technology. Propulsion Systems Long-stator propulsion using an electrically powered linear motor winding in the guideway appears to be the favored option for high-speed maglev systems. It is also the most expensive because of higher guideway construction costs. Short-stator propulsion uses a linear induction motor (LIM) winding onboard and a passive guideway. While short-stator propulsion reduces guideway costs, the LIM is heavy and reduces vehicle payload capacity, resulting in higher operating costs and lower revenue potential compared to the long-stator propulsion. A third alternative is a nonmagnetic energy source (gas turbine or turboprop) but this, too, results in a heavy vehicle and reduced operating efficiency. Guidance Systems Guidance or steering refers to the sideward forces that are required to make the vehicle follow the guideway. The necessary forces are supplied in an exactly analogous fashion to the suspension forces, either attractive or repulsive. The same magnets on board the vehicle, which supply lift, can be used concurrently for guidance or separate guidance magnets can be used. Maglev and U.S. Transportation Maglev systems could offer an attractive transportation alternative for many time-sensitive trips of 100 to 600 miles in length, thereby reducing air and highway congestion, air pollution, and energy use, and releasing slots for more efficient long-haul service at crowded airports. The potential value of maglev technology was recognized in the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA). Before the passage of the ISTEA, Congress had appropriated $26.2 million to identify maglev system concepts for use in the United States and to assess the technical and economic feasibility of these systems. Studies were also directed toward determining the role of maglev in improving intercity transportation in the United States. Subsequently, an additional $9.8 million was appropriated to complete the NMI Studies. Why Maglev? What are the attributes of maglev that commend its consideration by transportation planners? Faster trips - high peak speed and high acceleration/braking enable average speeds three to four times the national highway speed limit of 65 mph (30 m/s) and lower door-to-door trip time than high-speed rail or air (for trips under about 300 miles or 500 km). Still higher speeds are feasible. Maglev takes up where high-speed rail leaves off, permitting speeds of 250 to 300 mph (112 to 134 m/s) and higher. Maglev has high reliability and less susceptible to congestion and weather conditions than air or highway travel. Variance from schedule can average less than one minute based on foreign high-speed rail experience. This means intra and intermodal connecting times can be reduced to a few minutes (rather than the half-hour or more required with airlines and Amtrak at present) and that appointments can safely be scheduled without having to consider delays. Maglev gives petroleum independence - with respect to air and auto because of Maglev being electrically powered. Petroleum is unnecessary for the production of electricity. In 1990, less than 5 percent of the Nations electricity was derived from petroleum whereas the petroleum used by both the air and automobile modes comes primarily from foreign sources. Maglev is less polluting - with respect to air and auto, again because of being electrically powered. Emissions can be controlled more effectively at the source of electric power generation than at the many points of consumption, such as with air and automobile usage. Maglev has a higher capacity than air travel with at least 12,000 passengers per hour in each direction. There is the potential for even higher capacities at 3 to 4-minute headways. Maglev provides sufficient capacity to accommodate traffic growth well into the twenty-first century and to provide an alternative to air and auto in the event of an oil availability crisis. Maglev has high safety - both perceived and actual, based on foreign experience. Maglev has convenience - due to a high frequency of service and the ability to serve central business districts, airports, and other major metropolitan area nodes. Maglev has improved comfort - with respect to air due to greater roominess, which allows separate dining and conference areas with the freedom to move around. The absence of air turbulence ensures a consistently smooth ride. Maglev Evolution The concept of magnetically levitated trains was first identified at the turn of the century by two Americans, Robert Goddard, and Emile Bachelet. By the 1930s, Germanys Hermann Kemper was developing a concept and demonstrating the use of magnetic fields to combine the advantages of trains and airplanes. In 1968, Americans James R. Powell and Gordon T. Danby were granted a patent on their design for a magnetic levitation train. Under the High-Speed Ground Transportation Act of 1965, the FRA funded a wide range of research into all forms of HSGT through the early 1970s. In 1971, the FRA awarded contracts to the Ford Motor Company and the Stanford Research Institute for analytical and experimental development of EMS and EDS systems. FRA-sponsored research led to the development of the linear electrical motor, the motive power used by all current maglev prototypes. In 1975, after Federal funding for high-speed maglev research in the United States was suspended, industry virtually abandoned its interest in maglev; however, research in low-speed maglev continued in the United States until 1986. Over the past two decades, research and development programs in maglev technology have been conducted by several countries including Great Britain, Canada, Germany, and Japan. Germany and Japan have invested over $1 billion each to develop and demonstrate maglev technology for HSGT. The German EMS maglev design, Transrapid (TR07), was certified for operation by the German Government in December 1991. A maglev line between Hamburg and Berlin is under consideration in Germany with private financing and potentially with additional support from individual states in northern Germany along the proposed route. The line would connect with the high-speed Intercity Express (ICE) train as well as conventional trains. The TR07 has been tested extensively in Emsland, Germany, and is the only high-speed maglev system in the world ready for revenue service. The TR07 is planned for implementation in Orlando, Florida. The EDS concept under development in Japan uses a superconducting magnet system. A decision will be made in 1997 whether to use maglev for the new Chuo line between Tokyo and Osaka. The National Maglev Initiative (NMI) Since the termination of Federal support in 1975, there was little research into high-speed maglev technology in the United States until 1990 when the National Maglev Initiative (NMI) was established. The NMI is a cooperative effort of the FRA of the DOT, the USACE, and the DOE, with support from other agencies. The purpose of the NMI was to evaluate the potential for maglev to improve intercity transportation and to develop the information necessary for the Administration and the Congress to determine the appropriate role for the Federal Government in advancing this technology. In fact, from its inception, the U.S. Government has aided and promoted innovative transportation for economic, political, and social development reasons. There are numerous examples. In the nineteenth century, the Federal Government encouraged railroad development to establish transcontinental links through such actions as the massive land grant to the Illinois Central-Mobile Ohio Railroads in 1850. Beginning in the 1920s, the Federal Government provided commercial stimulus to the new technology of aviation through contracts for airmail routes and funds that paid for emergency landing fields, route lighting, weather reporting, and communications. Later in the 20th century, Federal funds were used to construct the Interstate Highway System and assist States and municipalities in the construction and operation of airports. In 1971, the Federal Government formed Amtrak to ensure rail passenger service for the United States. Assessment of Maglev Technology In order to determine the technical feasibility of deploying maglev in the United States, the NMI Office performed a comprehensive assessment of the state-of-the-art of maglev technology. Over the past two decades, various ground transportation systems have been developed overseas, having operational speeds in excess of 150 mph (67 m/s), compared to 125 mph (56 m/s) for the U.S. Metroliner. Several steel-wheel-on-rail trains can maintain a speed of 167 to 186 mph (75 to 83 m/s), most notably the Japanese Series 300 Shinkansen, the German ICE, and the French TGV. The German Transrapid Maglev train has demonstrated a speed of 270 mph (121 m/s) on a test track, and the Japanese have operated a maglev test car at 321 mph (144 m/s). The following are descriptions of the French, German, and Japanese systems used for comparison to the U.S. Maglev (USML) SCD concepts.  Ã‚   French Train a Grande Vitesse (TGV) The French National Railways TGV is representative of the current generation of high-speed, steel-wheel-on-rail trains. The TGV has been in service for 12 years on the Paris-Lyon (PSE) route and for 3 years on an initial portion of the Paris-Bordeaux (Atlantique) route. The Atlantique train consists of ten passenger cars with a power car at each end.   The power cars use synchronous rotary traction motors for propulsion. Roof-mounted pantographs collect electric power from an overhead catenary. Cruise speed is 186 mph (83 m/s). The train is non-tilting and, thus, requires a reasonably straight route alignment to sustain high speed. Although the operator controls the train speed, interlocks exist including automatic overspeed protection and enforced braking. Braking is by a combination of rheostat brakes and axle-mounted disc brakes. All axles possess antilock braking. Power axles have anti-slip control. The TGV track structure is that of a conventional standard-gauge railroad with a well-engineered base (compacted granular materials). The track consists of continuous-welded rail on concrete/steel ties with elastic fasteners. Its high-speed switch is a conventional swing-nose turnout. The TGV operates on pre-existing tracks, but at a substantially reduced speed. Because of its high speed, high power, and anti wheel slip control, the TGV can climb grades that are about twice as great as normal in U.S. railroad practice and, thus, can follow the gently rolling terrain of France without extensive and expensive viaducts and tunnels. German TR07 The German TR07 is the high-speed Maglev system nearest to commercial readiness. If financing can be obtained, groundbreaking will take place in Florida in 1993 for a 14-mile (23 km) shuttle between Orlando International Airport and the amusement zone at International Drive. The TR07 system is also under consideration for a high-speed link between Hamburg and Berlin and between downtown Pittsburgh and the airport. As the designation suggests, TR07 was preceded by at least six earlier models. In the early seventies, German firms, including Krauss-Maffei, MBB, and Siemens, tested full-scale versions of an air cushion vehicle (TR03) and a repulsion maglev vehicle using superconducting magnets. After a decision was made to concentrate on attraction maglev in 1977, advancement proceeded in significant increments, with the system evolving from linear induction motor (LIM) propulsion with wayside power collection to the linear synchronous motor (LSM), which employs variable frequency, elect rically powered coils on the guideway. TR05 functioned as a people mover at the International Traffic Fair Hamburg in 1979, carrying 50,000 passengers and providing valuable operating experience. The TR07, which operates on 19.6 miles (31.5 km) of guideway at the Emsland test track in northwest Germany, is the culmination of nearly 25 years of German Maglev development, costing over $1 billion. It is a sophisticated EMS system, using separate conventional iron-core attracting electromagnets to generate vehicle lift and guidance. The vehicle wraps around a T-shaped guideway. The TR07 guideway uses steel or concrete beams constructed and erected to very tight tolerances. Control systems regulate levitation and guidance forces to maintain an inch gap (8 to 10 mm) between the magnets and the iron tracks on the guideway. The attraction between vehicle magnets and edge-mounted guideway rails provide guidance. The attraction between a second set of vehicle magnets and the propulsion stator packs underneath the guideway generate lift. The lift magnets also serve as the secondary or rotor of an LSM, whose primary or stator is an electrical winding running the length of the guideway. T R07 uses two or more non-tilting vehicles in a consist. TR07 propulsion is by a long-stator LSM. Guideway stator windings generate a traveling wave that interacts with the vehicle levitation magnets for synchronous propulsion. Centrally controlled wayside stations provide the requisite variable-frequency, variable-voltage power to the LSM. Primary braking is regenerative through the LSM, with eddy-current braking and high-friction skids for emergencies. TR07 has demonstrated safe operation at 270 mph (121 m/s) on the Emsland track. It is designed for cruise speeds of 311 mph (139 m/s). Japanese High-Speed Maglev The Japanese have spent over $1 billion developing both attraction and repulsion maglev systems. The HSST attraction system, developed by a consortium often identified with Japan Airlines, is actually a series of vehicles designed for 100, 200, and 300 km/h. Sixty miles-per-hour (100 km/h) HSST Maglevs have transported over two million passengers at several Expos in Japan and the 1989 Canada Transport Expo in Vancouver. The high-speed Japanese repulsion Maglev system is under development by Railway Technical Research Institute (RTRI), the research arm of the newly privatized Japan Rail Group. RTRIs ML500 research vehicle achieved the world high-speed guided ground vehicle record of 321 mph (144 m/s) in December 1979, a record that still stands, although a specially modified French TGV rail train has come close. A manned three-car MLU001 began testing in 1982. Subsequently, the single car MLU002 was destroyed by fire in 1991. Its replacement, the MLU002N, is being used to test the sid ewall levitation that is planned for eventual revenue system use. The principal activity at present is the construction of a $2 billion, 27-mile (43 km) maglev test line through the mountains of Yamanashi Prefecture, where testing of a revenue prototype is scheduled to commence in 1994. The Central Japan Railway Company plans to begin building a second high-speed line from Tokyo to Osaka on a new route (including the Yamanashi test section) starting in 1997. This will provide relief for the highly profitable Tokaido Shinkansen, which is nearing saturation and needs rehabilitation. To provide ever improving service, as well as to forestall encroachment by the airlines on its present 85 percent market share, higher speeds than the present 171 mph (76 m/s) are regarded as necessary. Although the design speed of the first generation maglev system is 311 mph (139 m/s), speeds up to 500 mph (223 m/s) are projected for future systems. Repulsion maglev has been chosen over attraction maglev because of its reputed higher speed potential and because the larger air gap accommodates the ground motion experienced in Japans earthquake-prone territory. The design of Japans repulsion system is not firm. A 1991 cost estimate by Japans Central Railway Company, which would own the lin e, indicates that the new high-speed line through the mountainous terrain north of Mt. Fuji would be very expensive, about $100 million per mile (8 million yen per meter) for a conventional railway. A maglev system would cost 25 percent more. A significant part of the expense is the cost of acquiring surface and subsurface ROW. Knowledge of the technical details of Japans high-speed Maglev is sparse. What is known is that it will have superconducting magnets in bogies with sidewall levitation, linear synchronous propulsion using guideway coils, and a cruise speed of 311 mph (139 m/s). U.S. Contractors Maglev Concepts (SCDs) Three of the four SCD concepts use an EDS system in which superconducting magnets on the vehicle induce repulsive lift and guidance forces through movement along a system of passive conductors mounted on the guideway. The fourth SCD concept uses an EMS system similar to the German TR07. In this concept, attraction forces generate lift and guide the vehicle along the guideway. However, unlike TR07, which uses conventional magnets, the attraction forces of the SCD EMS concept are produced by superconducting magnets. The following individual descriptions highlight the significant features of the four U.S. SCDs. Bechtel SCD The Bechtel concept is an EDS system that uses a novel configuration of vehicle-mounted, flux-canceling magnets.   The vehicle contains six sets of eight superconducting magnets per side and straddles a concrete box-beam guideway. An interaction between the vehicle magnets and a laminated aluminum ladder on each guideway sidewall generates lift. A similar interaction with guideway mounted null flux coils provides guidance. LSM propulsion windings, also attached to the guideway sidewalls, interact with vehicle magnets to produce thrust. Centrally controlled wayside stations provide the required variable-frequency, variable-voltage power to the LSM. The Bechtel vehicle consists of a single car with an inner tilting shell. It uses aerodynamic control surfaces to augment magnetic guidance forces. In an emergency, it levitates onto air-bearing pads. The guideway consists of a post-tensioned concrete box girder. Because of high magnetic fields, the concept calls for nonmagnetic, fiber-re inforced plastic (FRP) post-tensioning rods and stirrups in the upper portion of the box beam. The switch is a bendable beam constructed entirely of FRP. Foster-Miller SCD The Foster-Miller concept is an EDS similar to the Japanese high-speed Maglev but has some additional features to improve potential performance. The Foster-Miller concept has a vehicle tilting design that would allow it to operate through curves faster than the Japanese system for the same level of passenger comfort. Like the Japanese system, the Foster-Miller concept uses superconducting vehicle magnets to generate lift by interacting with null-flux levitation coils located in the sidewalls of a U-shaped guideway. Magnet interaction with guideway-mounted, electrical propulsion coils provides null-flux guidance. Its innovative propulsion scheme is called a locally commutated linear synchronous motor (LCLSM). Individual H-bridge inverters sequentially energize propulsion coils directly under the bogies. The inverters synthesize a magnetic wave that travels along the guideway at the same speed as the vehicle. The Foster-Miller vehicle is composed of articulated passenger modules and ta il and nose sections that create multiple-car consists. The modules have magnet bogies at each end that they share with adjacent cars. Each bogie contains four magnets per side. The U-shaped guideway consists of two parallel, post-tensioned concrete beams joined transversely by precast concrete diaphragms. To avoid adverse magnetic effects, the upper post-tensioning rods are FRP. The high-speed switch uses switched null-flux coils to guide the vehicle through a vertical turnout. Thus, the Foster-Miller switch requires no moving structural members. Grumman SCD The Grumman concept is an EMS with similarities to the German TR07. However, Grummans vehicles wrap around a Y-shaped guideway and use a common set of vehicle magnets for levitation, propulsion, and guidance.   Guideway rails are ferromagnetic and have LSM windings for propulsion. The vehicle magnets are superconducting coils around horseshoe-shaped iron cores. The pole faces are attracted to iron rails on the underside of the guideway. Nonsuperconducting control coils on each iron-core leg modulate levitation and guidance forces to maintain a 1.6-inch (40 mm) air gap. No secondary suspension is required to maintain adequate ride quality. Propulsion is by conventional LSM embedded in the guideway rail. Grumman vehicles may be single or multi-car consists with tilt capability. The innovative guideway superstructure consists of slender Y-shaped guideway sections (one for each direction) mounted by outriggers every 15-feet to a 90-foot (4.5 m to a 27 m) spline girder. The structural s pline girder serves both directions. Switching is accomplished with a TR07-style bending guideway beam, shortened by use of a sliding or rotating section. Magneplane SCD The Magneplane concept is a single-vehicle EDS using a trough-shaped 0.8-inch (20 mm) thick aluminum guideway for sheet levitation and guidance. Magneplane vehicles can self-bank up to 45 degrees in curves. Earlier laboratory work on this concept validated the levitation, guidance, and propulsion schemes. Superconducting levitation and propulsion magnets are grouped in bogies at the front and rear of the vehicle. The centerline magnets interact with conventional LSM windings for propulsion and generate some electromagnetic roll-righting torque called the keel effect. The magnets on the sides of each bogie react against the aluminum guideway sheets to provide levitation. The Magneplane vehicle uses aerodynamic control surfaces to provide active motion damping. The aluminum levitation sheets in the guideway trough form the tops of two structural aluminum box beams. These box beams are supported directly on piers. The high-speed switch uses switched null-flux coils to guide the vehicle through a fork in the guideway trough. Thus, the Magneplane switch requires no moving structural members. Sources: Sources:  National Transportation Library  http://ntl.bts.gov/